Abstract
Drawing lessons from Ukraine, the 2024–2030 MPL accelerates France’s efforts to enhance its drone warfare capabilities through increased spending, technological innovation, and operational training. Investments target loitering munitions, tactical drones, Medium-Altitude Long-Endurance Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (MALE UAVs), swarm capabilities, and Counter-Unmanned Aerial System (C-UAS) systems, while cooperation with Ukraine supports rapid adaptation. Budgetary pressures and political uncertainty nonetheless raise doubts about the long-term sustainability of this effort.
Introduction
Article 34 of the 1958 French Constitution establishes programming laws that set long-term policy frameworks and define multi-year budget orientations—typically spanning 4 to 7 years. The Loi de Programmation Militaire (Military Programming Law or MPL) applies this mechanism to national defense. It outlines the French armed forces’ main priorities, identifies strategic challenges, and allocates the financial resources needed to modernize the military over the designated period. The 2024–2030 MPL seeks to reinforce France’s sovereignty and strategic autonomy. Compared with the previous law, it significantly increases defense spending. The MPL document states that the convergence of hybrid warfare and high-intensity conflict—illustrated by Russia’s war in Ukraine—requires scaling up the French Army’s equipment and capabilities and enhancing joint operations. The document outlines a major threat: “The international jihadist movement continues to present a significant security challenge for both Western states and fragile countries across the Muslim world, from Africa to Southeast Asia.” The document presents other evolving threats, including the use of proxies by competing powers to undermine French influence; mounting pressure on French overseas territories, particularly from China; and the destabilizing effects of climate change, which aggravate crises in fragile regions.
To address these challenges, the MPL is structured around several investment pillars. The first pillar consolidates traditional capabilities: nuclear deterrence, force readiness, intelligence and counter-intelligence, special operations, the protection of overseas territories, and training for high-intensity operations. The second pillar focuses on fields where competition is increasing: modernization of equipment, military forces’ robotization, the expansion and revitalization of air defense, adaptation of the war economy and its legal framework, securing reliable ammunition supplies, and reinforcing national cohesion through the Lien Armée-Nation. The third pillar targets cutting-edge technologies essential for future conflicts: space systems, deep-sea capabilities, cyber warfare, and artificial intelligence (AI). The fourth and final pillar aims to expand manpower, notably by strengthening the operational reserve and improving the quality of life for military personnel.
The adoption of the MPL followed the legislative process defined by the French Constitution. After two weeks of debate—around 90 hours—the National Assembly approved the bill on 7 June 2023. The text was then transmitted to the Senate, which began its review on 27 June. Senators introduced several amendments emphasizing the need to accelerate military strengthening, particularly in nuclear deterrence and support for the defense industrial base through the creation of an investment fund. While maintaining the overall financial envelope, the Senate redistributed and accelerated the spending schedule: the 2024 defense budget was raised from €3.1 billion to €3.5 billion, followed by €3.6 billion annually instead of €3 billion between 2024 and 2027, before increasing to €4.3 billion from 2027 to 2030. The geopolitical environment, especially the war in Ukraine, was cited to justify this accelerated timeline. The Senate adopted its revised version on 29 June. A Commission mixte paritaire (Joint Committee) then convened to reconcile the two chambers of the Parliament. It reached an agreement on 13 July 2023, approving the final 2024–2030 MPL. The law commits €413 billion over seven years, an increase of €118 billion compared with the previous programming law.
A central element of the MPL is the €10 billion earmarked for innovation. These funds aim to ensure that France maintains technological superiority in contested domains such as cyber, space, deep sea, the electromagnetic spectrum, and information warfare. Priority is given to the national industrial and technological base to preserve a sovereign supply chain. To keep pace with rapid innovation cycles, the Direction générale de l’armement (Directorate General of Armaments – DGA) will develop forecasting methods to anticipate future technological disruptions and deepen cooperation with private companies and start-ups. Through the Agence de l’innovation de défense (Agency of Defense Innovation – AID), part of this budget will support the emergence of solutions adapted to hybrid threats and complex operational environments. Robotization is one of the most significant challenges identified in the MPL. Around €5 billionis dedicated to drone programs of all types. This article focuses on France’s investments in UAVs and, more broadly, on the country’s efforts to advance drone-enabled warfare. Among the MPL’s UAV priorities are the development of reliable loitering munitions, the ability to conduct swarm operations by 2030, and the reinforcement of air-defense systems against unmanned threats through enhanced C-UAS capabilities.
Building Up UAV forces and Counter-UAS Defenses Under the 2024–2030 MPL
The 2024–2030 MPL places strong emphasis on expanding the French Army’s UAV fleet as part of its broader robotization effort. In 2024, €400 million was earmarked for robotic systems, with a portion allocated to loitering munitions. The Renault group, with the support of the company Turgis Gaillard, has revamped two production sites to manufacture loitering munitions, with a capacity of 600 drones per month. That same year, construction work began on new infrastructure at Air Base 709 in Cognac, France, to accommodate MALE UAVs. In 2025, €450 million was invested in drones, and the Chaumont Air Base received four Patroller tactical UAVs. The close-range drone fleet is being modernized progressively, combining limited numbers of advanced systems with larger quantities of low-cost, low-tech platforms. In 2026, €600 million was directed toward UAV programs, accelerating the acquisition of small tactical drones and low-altitude MALE systems, as well as the development of high-altitude drone deployment capabilities. In 2025 and 2026, the company Delair, in collaboration with the European defense industry holding company KMW+Nexter Defense System (KNDS), is delivering the first batch of tactical loitering munition Damocles to the forces. The Army has also been equipped with a dedicated warehouse for tactical drones and maintenance operations. In 2027, MBDA, with Aviation Design, will deliver its first long-distance loitering munitions, similar to the Russian-made UAV Geran-2. Overall, the MPL aims to fund five types of tactical drones and twenty-eight additional UAV categories across its seven-year duration.
Regarding Air Defense, the MPL highlights the need to expand and enhance C-UAS capabilities. Accordingly, significant investments have been allocated to Air Defense systems. In 2024, €250 million was spent, part of which supported the reinforcement of C-UAS coverage and the renewal of low-altitude Air Defense assets. The Army ordered C-UAS rifles based on electronic-warfare jamming technologies. In 2025, the Army received four PARADE systems—EW-based anti-drone solutions developed by Thales and CS Group—along with three laser C-UAS systems, three decoy C-UAS systems, and one hundred C-UAS rifles. In 2026, deliveries continued with nine additional PARADE systems and two more laser C-UAS units.
Accelerating Military Innovation in UAV Technologies, AI, and Franco-Ukrainian Cooperation
The other major orientation of the 2024–2030 MPL is financing military innovation to develop and enhance France’s expertise in strategic, cutting-edge technologies. UAV-related innovation is one of the priorities, but other technologies—such as AI—are also targeted and can indirectly contribute to drone warfare. For example, in 2024, the MPL earmarked €300 million for AI innovation; the same amount was allocated again in 2025, and in 2026, the fund increased to €400 million. These investments support numerous AI programs for various purposes (Human Resource management, intelligence, large-scale data processing), as well as the development of autonomous systems through AI integration.
The MPL also launched experiments on UAV swarm tactics in 2024, with efforts continuing in 2025 and throughout the duration of the programming law. The AID, the DGA’s innovation agency, works closely with French engineering schools on UAV technologies. The development of swarm tactics is supported through cooperation between the AID and institutions such as École Polytechnique. The agency organizes competitions between teams from different engineering schools, tasking them with creating solutions—such as operational swarm networks—for predefined scenarios. The most promising teams are selected and integrated into the DGA’s innovation laboratory with dedicated funding.
French innovation in UAVs and drones more broadly can rely on a valuable partner thanks to France’s sustained support for Ukraine in its defensive war against the Russian Federation. The war in Ukraine has served as a stark wake-up call for French industry, as Ukrainian soldiers have often criticized Western systems for being too expensive to lose and insufficiently adapted to the battlefield. Ukrainian drone operators complete their missions with cheap devices rather than relying on costly platforms. Ukraine has built an impressive drone industry and innovation ecosystem—flexible, fast-adapting, and highly productive. France has expressed interest in cooperating with the Ukrainian drone sector to develop and reinforce its own capabilities. The goal is to benefit from Ukraine’s production capacity, maintenance know-how, research and development, and innovative technologies at an affordable cost. Ukraine, for its part, seeks partners with reliable industrial capabilities and international weight. France is a strong candidate, especially given the proven performance of certain French systems in Ukraine (such as the CAESAR howitzer weapon). MPL innovation funds also support this cooperation between the French and Ukrainian drone industries.
Reconciling Sovereign Development and Rapid Procurement: France’s Dual Path to Drone Warfare Under the 2024–2030 MPL:
The 2024–2030 MPL draws on the strategic priority of relying on sovereign solutions and supply chains to secure the autonomy of France’s defense system. This priority entails developing domestic drone programs, particularly for UAVs. Such programs, however, often require many years—sometimes decades—before producing operational equipment for the armed forces. This long-term horizon must be reconciled with the urgent need to expand the UAV fleet, both in quantity and in the diversity of platforms available. Moreover, the innovation cycle of drone warfare is so rapid and dynamic that long development programs risk lagging behind the reality of evolving UAV technologies and operational tactics. The MPL, therefore, attempts to balance two imperatives: sovereignty through “from-scratch” UAV development and rapid acquisitions to narrow the existing capability gap.
A telling example is France’s purchase of MALE Reaper UAVs from the United States in 2013, originally intended as a short-term solution pending the arrival of a French counterpart. That domestic counterpart never materialized, underscoring French industry’s difficulties in keeping pace with MALE UAV development and production. Airbus’s Eurodrone, designated as the next-generation MALE UAV, will only be available around 2031. To bridge this gap, the Ministry adopted a new strategy in 2025, signing contracts with several drone companies to produce affordable MALE UAVs. These systems, though less advanced than the Eurodrone, are intended to be operational by 2026 and remain financially accessible. Around €10 million has been allocated to this strategy, with the first deliveries expected in 2027—a stark contrast with the €7.1 billion invested for the 60 Eurodrones to be shared between France, Germany, Spain, and Italy. This shift recognizes that UAV capabilities cannot depend solely on lengthy and heavily bureaucratic development cycles.
UAVs are now spreading across the Army, Air Force, and Navy, and the lessons drawn from Ukraine have accelerated changes toward greater flexibility in the acquisition process. Once considered advanced, sophisticated, and limited in number, UAVs have proliferated into systems available in numerous models and used across a wide range of missions. The French armed forces acknowledge this evolution. As planned in the MPL, UAV procurement will no longer rely exclusively on long-term programs. Since 2023, the French Army has adopted the acquisition of “off-the-shelf” systems—ready to order and deploy—to keep pace with the rapid innovation cycle of drone warfare. This renewed strategy is meant to give the armed forces greater flexibility in UAV procurement, whether for civilian or military drones. MPL funds are expected to support this paradigm shift, enabling the French military to adapt to the evolving landscape of drone warfare.
Building a UAV-Capable Force Within the 2024–2030 MPL
To strengthen the French Army’s drone warfare capabilities, the 2024–2030 MPL emphasizes training and instruction within the forces. This effort reflects the military’s recognition of UAVs’ decisive role in the war in Ukraine. The 61e Artillery Regiment—traditionally responsible for imagery, surveillance, and reconnaissance—has become a central actor in this shift. It received its Patroller UAVs in 2025 and continues to illustrate the land forces’ growing investment in drone operations. Historically, the École des drones (Drones School – EDD) was attached to the 61e Artillery Regiment. This connection made sense when UAVs were mostly used for ISR and for supporting artillery fire between the 1980s and the 2010s. However, the rapid proliferation of drones across the Ground Army—and beyond—made this structure outdated.
As the MPL enabled a significant expansion of the drone fleet, growing from roughly 2,000 UAVs in 2024 to around 3,000 in 2025, the EDD increasingly welcomed students from a wide variety of units. In 2023, the School became an autonomous institution to better address these new operational realities. Today, the EDD trains personnel from Ground Army units, the Ministry of the Interior, and even UN contingents. It prepares operators of loitering munitions, qualifies UAV instructors for the wider force, oversees technical education, and supports doctrinal and capability assessments related to drone warfare. The School offers 51 training programs covering all UAV types in the Ground Army fleet. Its primary mission is to train future instructors who will disseminate UAV expertise within their units.
Along with the EDD, the Ground Army established a network of instruction centers specialized in the tactical use of UAVs. Every brigade of the Ground Army will have its own Centre d’Entraînement Tactique Drone (Tactical Drone Training Center – CETD), where armed-UAV-related skills will be taught to the troops. CETD will particularly focus on loitering munitions, First Person View (FPV) drones, 3D printers for drone warfare, and combined combat operations between foot soldiers and tactical UAVs. Finally, at the regimental level, UAV instructors will be assigned to train and guide the forces on the technical and tactical aspects of drone warfare, tailored to each regiment’s specialization.
Throughout the lifespan of the 2024–2030 MPL, several large-scale exercises integrate dedicated drone warfare components. In 2024, an exercise on the Plateau du Larzac tested fifty innovative weapon systems, including numerous UAV models used in realistic combat situations. The Dronex 2025 exercise of the 2nd Armored Brigade further strengthened tactical UAV skills; soldiers trained on their BH3, Parrot, and NX70 drones for trench reconnaissance, target acquisition, tactical support, ISR, and C-UAS procedures. Between February and April 2026, the French Army will conduct the major ORION 26 exercise, designed around a scenario of escalation from hybrid conflict to high-intensity combat against a foreign power. The exercise brings together French Air Force, Navy, and Ground Army units, as well as allied troops, to test joint operations in highly demanding conditions. ORION 26 integrates 1,200 Ground Army drones and two MALE UAVs from the Air Force. Phase 2 of the exercise involves 400 drones and focuses on strengthening operational and tactical command structures during an initial entry campaign. Phase 4, deploying around 800 drones, focuses on operations within a NATO framework. According to the French Army, ORION 26 offers “a fictional but credible scenario, based on NATO standards, to recreate all forms of modern combat, from hybrid threats to high intensity”.
Conclusion
The 2024–2030 French Military Programming Law reflects a clear recognition of the major role drone warfare now plays in contemporary and future conflicts, a lesson drawn from the war in Ukraine and, more broadly, from the resurgence of high-intensity combat. This programming cycle comes with a significant increase in defense spending to prepare the nation, its population, and its armed forces for a world marked by more aggressive geopolitical competition and a degraded international order. France has possessed drone capabilities for decades, but it has fallen behind in the pace of technological innovation—hence the decision to place UAVs under the “innovation” pillar of the new law. The effort encompasses not only technological advances and the wider robotization of the armed forces but also the rapid acquisition of many drones, especially loitering munitions.
Under President Macron, France has explicitly reaffirmed its intention to accelerate rearmament. The two Military Programming Laws (MPLs) adopted under his presidency represent a structural rise in defense spending after decades of budgetary contraction. This shift cannot be separated from the profound changes in the international environment and the shock produced by the war in Ukraine. However, the sustainability of the budgetary effort planned for 2024–2030 is not guaranteed. A political alternation after the 2027 presidential election or a reduction of perceived threats following the resolution of the war in Ukraine could reshape priorities. Moreover, the armed forces are well aware that the Ministry of Economy and Finance has, in the past, applied administrative mechanisms to reduce or delay funds initially promised in a voted MPL. Such practices—already observed in previous cycles—could reappear in a context of high public debt and deteriorating public finances, even if the government publicly commits to strengthening national defense.
