Introduction
State regulations governing opioid treatment programs (OTPs) vary widely in their restrictiveness, yet how state policies relate to the availability of services offered within OTPs remains understudied. In this study, we compare the availability of medication for opioid use disorder (MOUD) options, psychosocial services, and housing supports across OTPs operating in states with different levels of OTP policy restrictions.
Methods
We conducted a cross-sectional study of 1501 opioid treatment programs (OTPs) in the United States. Exposures included 11 state-level OTP policies that impose legal or administrative barriers to opening or operating OTPs or to patients’ receipt of care (e.g., pharmacy licensure requirements, zoning restrictions, government identification requirements, and administrative discharge for positive drug screenings). Data on OTP service offerings—including buprenorphine, naltrexone, all three medications for opioid use disorder, mental health services, contingency management, trauma-informed counseling, and housing services—and organizational characteristics were obtained from the 2023 Mental Health and Addiction Treatment Tracking Repository, a national longitudinal database of licensed substance use disorder treatment facilities. These data were linked to a previously developed state policy typology using latent class analysis, which categorized states as having low or high OTP restrictiveness. Regression models adjusted for state- and organizational-level characteristics and accounted for clustering within states.
Results
In descriptive analyses, OTPs in highly restrictive states were significantly less likely (p < 0.05) to offer all three MOUDs and behavioral health services, including mental health services, trauma-informed counseling, and contingency management, compared with OTPs in low-restrictiveness states. In adjusted Poisson regression models, facilities in highly restrictive states were significantly less likely to offer naltrexone (ARR: 0.73; 95% CI: 0.54-0.97) and all three MOUDs (ARR: 0.70; 95% CI: 0.53-0.92).
Conclusions
Given that OTPs are the only facilities in which methadone can be legally dispensed, these facilities are a critical point of access for individuals in need of evidence-based OUD treatment. However, our findings suggest that states that place additional restrictions on OTPs also offer less services within their OTPs.
